A Review of Climate Change: Scientific Perspectives, Communication, and Recommendations for Preservation

Introduction

In ancient times people felt that the climate of the region would change over the centuries. A student of Aristotle, Theophrastus experiment that the earth is warmer than trees with trees. Deforestation and exploitation of pasture lands around the Mediterranean had changed the climate. The greatest climate changes came in the middle of the 18th and 19th centuries, in the northeastern United States the forests returned to agricultural land. During this period, scientists didn’t believe that people are influencing climate changes [1]. But later noted that began to reduce rainfall in the region, reduced reserves in water basins as a result in northeastern United States had climate changes. According to statistical analysis, 4.2 million people live in the Arctic, representing the unique cultural and economic history of the Arctic. Arctic residents have fewer knowledge options for climate changes in their country, environmental choice, choices are limited by geography, economics and culture [2]. For their dependence and the close relationship with the Arctic environment and natural resources, indigenous peoples to less responsible for climate changes in the Arctic. Global climate changes is a complex issue, the importance of the risks presented to societies and the environment, the uncertainties associated with scientific evidence the degree and the pace of future environmental impacts [3] .

The characterization of climate changes as a society problem has four key features:

1. Time is ending in terms of undertaking the actions for maintaining the climate on the planet;
2. Causes of environmental problems, seek to provide a long-term solution to the environment;
3. The central authority is necessary to address the problems as weak or non-existent; and
4. Response policies cannot reduce quality for the environmental future.

Climate science should be considered as a “post normal”, scientific case due to its expansion into social policy. Environmental uncertainty is linked to lack of information, statistical changes, approximation, measurement errors, climate dispute and subjective climate trials. Climate information is timely, meaningful and accurate, is the first important step for society and the environment to lead climate policy and decision-making in conservation in the Arctic [5]. Rationale for climate changes, communications with indigenous communities must be useful for local information, anthropogenic sources and the origins of technological uses for climate changes. Suggesting that adaptation measures; as well as the involvement of small communities for the responsibility of causing the environmental problem.

Climatic environmental experts engage in communication about climate changes by obtaining the information they serve (for example, scientific advisors, experts etc.), or professions they choose (for example, professors, researchers, educators, scientific writers, etc.) [6].

Information on climate changes in the Arctic is limited to communication with climate science, and public information from responsible environmental structures and social implications for climate changes.

Theories and Causes for the Beginning of Changing Climate in 19th Century

In 1980, scientist Samuel Pierpoint Langley, attempted to determine the moon temperature by measuring the radiation coming from, recognizing the moon horizon, could be determine the amount of water vapor and carbon dioxide that had to pass the radiation before to reach the ground. Other scientists improved these observations and made the first measurements of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere [7]. Arrhenius used Langley’s observations, which emphasizes: when the moonlight falls at a lower angle we have infrared rays, this phenomenon is caused by the increase of CO₂ in the atmosphere. Based on this principle, there is a forecast the rise of temperature in the atmosphere. In case of CO₂ rise in the atmosphere, Sfanto Arrhenius measure for the first time human influence on climate changes in the USA. The Arrhenius fancier sees that with the reduction of CO₂ in the atmosphere the temperature drops, if the amount of CO₂ decreases in the atmosphere, the amount of gas vapor decreases [8].

This phenomenon causes the growth of bores on the icy surfaces, causing the reflection of the sun rays and consequently loses heat from the surface of the earth.

According to statistical calculations, CO₂ halving in the atmosphere would cause doubling the ice in the country. CO₂ halving would cause a decrease in USA temperatures of 5^oC to 6^oC.

Arrhenius was right in his theory, but the measurements were not entirely accurate. Scientific research found a large CO₂ mass, which was captured by the oceans this made it a relief for the researchers [9] .

Climate changes between 1950/70 – 1950’s research showed that CO₂ and water vapor did not fully coincide with water and oceans, realizing that water vapors were present in the upper atmosphere. The upper atmosphere of the oceans was limited to ability to absorb CO₂ and it is thought that, in 2025 the amount of CO₂ in the atmosphere will increase by 25%, and there will be drastic of increasing the temperature [10] . Another concern is that four large glaciers were fragmented in other of large parts and this indicates the increasing the environment temperatures. Researchers have another problem with the effect of polluting particle heating and is an environmental uncertainty, a cooling effect or a greenhouse effect that increase environmental temperature. It is thought that human-produced gases and devastating to climate in the 21st century. With the capabilities of digital computers, the greenhouse effect is first described for the first time [11]. A doubling of current CO₂ will increase the temperature for 2^oC in the atmosphere at global temperature. This would also have an impact on lowering the water level. Reducing the surface of lakes. The big salt lake in the USA has dropped its double in the last 100 years. On the other hand the melting of the glaciers will cause the level rise and many cities will be flooded.

Understanding the ethical communication for global climate changing

The meaning of ‘ethics’, communication about climate changes refers to the fundamental set of moral values ​​governing human existence. These values ​​can be placed in such categories as ‘good or bad’, ‘right or wrong’, etc. Ethical communication of climate changes information refers to the action of morality in environmental ethics.

Interaction of ethical issues may arise when climate changes experts seek to present environmental and climatic information, inform the public, awareness of the importance of climate changes, social and environmental consequences, decision-making, cancellation of erroneous solutions, or to promote adequate climate protection actions [12]. Timely access to climate information, accurate and understandable climate information is critical to guiding climate policy decisions. Ethical communication on climate changes is to guide clear decision-making on climate information, ambiguity and bias, formulation of climate solutions etc.

Sustainable public engagement in science builds a sense of accountability for decision-makers, the confidence and credibility of a part of scientists [13]. The flow of information between experts and the public leads to improving the performance of climate changes research.

Formulating solutions to climate changes, in addition to discussing impacts, is essential for ethical communication of climate changes.

Ethical obstacles communication of global climate changes

Although communication is essential to convey climate science information, both for experts and specialists, there are some barriers to preventing the effectiveness of climate changes communications. Summary of some challenges for climate changes: 1) Climate causes invisibility, 2) impact distance, 3) immediate lack of information, 4) lack of willingness to take actions to mitigate climate consequences, 5) complexity and environmental insecurity. Scientific uncertainty may arise due to information gaps in observation data, usability, and predictive capacity of climate models and statistical climatic uncertainties for the climate [14] . Collective action on climate changes is hampered by the uncertainty that arises when people are uncertain about how to act between human actions for climate changes. Communication on climate changes becomes the same with the various problematic, which can be constructed when discussing climate changes the perspectives of climate science discipline, journalism and environmental law. A conscientious or unconscious man to produce different products is destroying the global climate.

Climate change increases the scientific climate for the future

According to scientists climate changes are in the interest of societies that scientific research be informed about environmental issues. Scientists also engage in public discourse for climate changes to provide information through public lectures, scientific labs and various of electronic means [15]. Many scientists see communication and clear science information outside their field of responsibility. Lack of sufficient training for scientific communication and stimulation to further encourage scientists to follow the climate change consequences and serious engagement with public. Experts can help policy makers by determining the level of risk associated with climate changes and articulating the degree of risk for climate changes. Socio-cultural theories in the risk model in science emphasizes the social and cultural contexts within which the risk is various of climatic conditions endangered and addressed. In its “cultural knowledge” thesis that individuals form their perceptions of risk based on personal views conceived of what they believe the society benefits from maintaining climate [16].

Greenhouse gases (GHGs), are those natural gas and natural anthropogenic gases which absorb and emit radiation within specific breeds of radiation within the spectrum of infrared radiation emitted by the Earth’s surface, the atmosphere and the clouds. This feature causes the greenhouse effect [17]. Water vapor (H₂O), carbon dioxide (CO₂), nitrogen oxide (N₂O), methane (CH₄), and ozone (O₃), are the primary greenhouse gases in the Earth’s atmosphere. Moreover, in the atmosphere there are a number of greenhouse gases that are entirely generated by human factor, such as carbon halogens and other substances containing chlorine and bromine, which are treated by the Montreal Protocol [18]. In addition to gases such as CO₂, N₂O and CH₄, Kyoto Protocol deals with sulfur hexafluoride greenhouse gases (SF6), liquid fluorine (HFC), and perfluorocarbon (PFC), gases.

Managing climate changes through the perspective of law and politics

Science does not go through journalism, but it is necessary to apply law and politics. Scientific inquiry is essentially an inevitable way of a subject to become politicized in environmental controversy for three reasons:

1. Provision of scientific knowledge: supplies disputed parties with relevant facts legitimized by nature;
2. Multidisciplinary environmental nature: controversy can lead to competitive value based on political or ethical positions; and
3. Scientific uncertainty: can be understood as the lack of coherence between competitive scientific meanings, reinforced by various political, cultural and institutional contexts which science is realized.

In the last decade, disputes involving climate changes has increased, and it is very unlikely that the environmental litigation process will be mitigated [19]. A number of popular words have scientific definitions that differ from their native language (and legal definitions), for example, ‘insecurity’, ‘error’, ‘proof’, ‘theory’, ‘bias’. Scientific methods are a self-correcting mechanism verified by a rigorous scientific review of accuracy and quality of the research [20].

There are differences between science and law to treat the standards of scientific research. Physical scientific research uses quantitative data subject for statistical analysis. Assessing the quality of scientific evidence without proper training in scientific methods has been a challenge for both scientific and environmental scientists and judges [21].

Integrating environmental ethics and formulating decision-making strategies in environmental ethics has three broad goals:

1. To inform the institutions and the public;
2. To build institutional relations with the public; and
3. To persuade institutions and the public.

Defining goals for the communication process can be achieved through: honesty, accuracy and scientific information on climate changes. Context for addressing climate uncertainty, increasing public knowledge about climate science and availability [22].

Aristotle laid the foundations for ethical communication by offering one of the earliest communication theories in rhetoric.

He identified three critical elements of communication:

1. Ethos (speaker reliability);
2. Pathos (the emotion that is evoked in the audience), and
3. Logos (the argument of a message.).

Allegations that the responsibility of a speaker is to be clear about what is expressed and to assess what is being perceived. Audience responsibility will be the wiser recipients and customers communication by encouraging ethical communication judgments, that are focused and carefully considered [23].

In addition, the audience can help ethical communication by avoiding assumptions, accepting differences between disciplines and cultures and giving active feedback to communicators. Engaging actively with experts can help finding solution to address climate changes in that region (Arctic) [24]. An important principle of ethical communication for climate changes is the definition of the role, that climate science experts want to play in the policy processes. The path of objectivity in science does not include scientists who keep their personal thoughts but make active efforts to share their personal values ​​and prejudices from climate changes facts [25].

Emphasizing four ways in which scientists can engage decision makers, namely:

1. A pure scientist,
2. The referee of science,
3. Protector of scientific issues, and
4. Honest mediator of policy alternatives.

Recommendations of some scientist approaches to ethical media engagement in informing climate policy decisions.

Combining knowledge generation, on the other hand, increases credibility and ownership among the individuals involved, and increases the likelihood of changing the behavioral environment. Information is also less likely to be challenged in this process due to the high commitment and legitimacy perceived by the participation involved environmental rights [26]. More importantly, information on climate changes is set in context and communicated within the cultural boundaries of indigenous communities, including applicable and usable knowledge about behavior and social change within and outside of the Arctic. Integrating the ethical implications of climate change by engaging indigenous, Arctic peoples encourages reflection and learning between experts and non-specialists.

In addition, engagement with indigenous communities includes traditional techniques and perspectives of achieving the preservation of environmental sustainability. Publishers are crucial to ethical communication about climate changes in the environments. Formulating responses to address climate change requires articulation of ethics for climate information, and careful integration of ethical principles in formulating decision-making strategies. Application: the ‘Preventive Principle’, provides an important element of a value based for formulating ethical responses to climate changes. From the perspective of the precautionary measures it is imperative to undertake a focused research in rigorous scientific research to reduce the science of climatic uncertainties [27]. It is also important for better understand the nature of climate vulnerabilities faced by people in the environment; explore options that increase resilience and help people adapt to climate changes. Moreover, ethical decision-making must find a way to incorporate plurality of relevant values ​​and interests. Integrating ethics in public policy related to climate changes also requires ongoing monitoring and evaluation of decision-making strategies that can be achieved by measuring the effectiveness of actions taken to address climate changes and adapting decision-making strategies based on scientific results.

Conclusion

The earth’s climate system continues to change; society will address climate risk experts by exploring opportunities in the most vulnerable parts of the world. Climate change calls for collective responsibility from different entities including climate experts, indigenous peoples, visiting scientists, journalists, stakeholders and political decision-makers who offer different, but equal contributions to the decision-making process. Climate changes in the Arctic should lead to effective responses to the global climate change. This process involves timely and understanding of climatic influences, climate experts and audiences, knowledge of uncertainties and prejudices, consideration of the ethical consequences to the environment, responsiveness to climate change, and assessment of political decision-making.

Recommendation

What this study offers is an approach to explore the potential impacts of climate change, and to design a range of options to help all parties play important roles in adapting to impacts and making the best use of opportunities. To intervene in climate conservation in order to reduce the anthropogenic strain on the climatic system; the same ones include strategies and measures to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and emissions. Examples of mitigation measures are renewable energy technologies, waste minimization processes, public transport communication practices, and so on.

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